The Role And Importance Of Educational Research Philosophy Essay

The Role And Importance Of Educational Research Philosophy Essay Educational research is important because it is conducted in order to provide trustworthy information regarding educational problems and their solutions. There are many things that need to be considered when looking at what educational research is for example some thought needs to be put into looking at current paradigms, what counts as evidence in educational research, maintaining quality, and the role of peer review in validating new knowledge in educational research. There are many different approaches to educational research which are shaped by many different research paradigms. Koul (2008) states that the various research paradigms have different criteria for ontology and epistemology to maintain quality standards. The ontology and epistemology of a research paradigm influence researchers applying the quality standards, methodology and methods (para. 1). What is Educational Research: Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth (Borg, 1963, as cited in Cohan, Manion, Morrison, 2000). Educational research can be defined as a purposeful and systematic enquiry to solve a problem, illuminate a situation or add to our knowledge (Mutch, 2005, pp. 14) by the discovery of non-trivial facts and insights (Howard Sharp, 1983, as cited in Bell, 2005, pp. 2) in relation to the improvement of education policy and practices, with a commitment to broader dissemination of research findings beyond publication in high status, international, refereed journals (Lingard Gale, 2010, pp. 31). In order to define educational research we must first look at what research is. Research is a combination of both experience and reasoning and must be regarded as the most successful approach to the discovery of truth, particularly as far as the natural sciences are concerned (Borg, 1963, as cited in Cohan, Manion, Morrison, 2000). Therefore Educational Research can be defined as a `purposeful and systematic enquiry to solve a problem, illuminate a situation or add to our knowledge (Mutch, 2005, pp. 14) `by the discovery of non-trivial facts and insights (Howard Sharp, 1983, as cited in Bell, 2005, pp. 2) `in relation to the improvement of education policy and practices, with a commitment to broader dissemination of research findings beyond publication in high status, international, refereed journals (Lingard Gale, 2010, pp. 31). Anderson and Arsenault, (1998) suggest that there are ten characteristics of educational research that can be grouped into three main categories; the purpose of research, the procedures of research and the role of researcher (p. 7). They go on to explain that the purpose of research is to solve the problems and develop knowledge, the procedure involves collecting or generating data with accurate observation, objective interpretation, and verification. It also involves carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis (Anderson and Arsenault, 1998 pp. 7), and finally the role of researchers is to be patient and careful in every step of the researchers procedures, and be experts in their area of study, which requires them to use research data to develop solutions and increase knowledge. What is a Paradigm: The use of this fashionable word came about from the philosopher of science, Thomas Kuhn. The word comes from the Greek work paradeigma which translates literally as pattern. It is used in social science to describe an entire way of looking at the world (Davidson Tolich, 1999). It can be viewed as a basic set of beliefs held by an individual that represent a worldview which defines the nature of the world, the individuals place in it and the range of possible relationships to that world and its parts (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 200) A paradigm relates to a particular set of philosophical assumptions about what the world is made of and how it works. One way to consider a paradigm is as a collection of ontological and epistemological assumptions (Davidson Tolich, 1999). Inquiry paradigms define for inquirers what it is they are about, and what falls within and outside the limits of legitimate inquiry. (http://prk.dreamwidth.org/60977.html) Examining paradigms define for inquirers what paradigms are about and what fall within in and outside the limits of that paradigm? Denzin and Lincon (1998) state that there are three fundamental questions that need to be addressed in order to complete research. These questions are; the epistemological question, the ontological question, and the methodological question it is important to note that however one answers a question it effects how they answer the other two. The Epistemological Question: Epistemology is the study of the nature of knowledge. http://www.translationdirectory.com/glossaries/glossary007_e.htm Epistemology raises the questions of how we know what we know, and what is knowledge. http://atheism.about.com/od/philosophybranches/p/Epistemology.htm It encompasses the debate on if knowledge can be obtained through experience (Empiricism) or by the use of reasoning (rationalism). The epistemological question is asking what the form and nature of reality is and, what can be known about it? Denzin and Lincoln (1998) uses the example of if a real world is assumed, then what can be known about it are how things really are or how things really work where as other questions like matters of aesthetic or moral significance, fall outside the realm of legitimate scientific inquiry. (pp. 201) Questions for analysing paradigms Research paradigms Positivism Epistemological questions Nature of knowledge Knowledge can be described in a systematic way Knowledge consists of verified hypotheses that can be regarded as facts or laws. Probabilistic i.e. holds true for large groups of people or occurs in many situations Knowledge is accurate and certain Role of theory Theories are: Normative Present models General propositions explaining causal relationships between variables Theory building/testing Postulate a theories that can be tested in order to confirm or reject Prove a theory from observable phenomena / behaviour Test theories in a controlled setting, empirically supporting or falsifying hypotheses through process of experimentation Role of research Uncover reality i.e. natural laws Scientifically explain / describe, predict and control phenomena Research findings are true if: Can be observed an measured Can be replicated and are generalizable Role of common sense None only deductive reasoning (Voce, 2004 pp. ) The Ontological Question: Ontology is defined by as What is the nature of the relationship between the knower or would be knower and what can be known? Denzin Lincoln (1998) continue with their example of reality being assumed because one has already answered the epistolocial question the posture of the knower must be one of objective detachment or value freedom in order to discover these thing.. What is the nature of the relationship between the knower or would be knower and what can be known? The answer that can be given to this question is constrained by the answer already given to the ontological question; that is, not just any relationship can now be postulated. So if, for example, a real reality is assumed, then the posture of the knower must be one of objective detachment or value freedom in order to discover how things really are and how things really work (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 201). Questions for analysing paradigms Research paradigms Positivism Ontological Questions Nature of reality An objective, true reality exists which is governed by unchangeable natural cause-effect laws Consists of stable pre-existing patterns or order that can be discovered Reality is not time- nor context-bound Reality can be generalised Nature of human beings Rational Shaped by external factors (same cause has the same effect on everyone) i.e. mechanical model / behaviourist approach. Under certain conditions people will probably engage in a specified behaviour (Voce, 2004) The Methodological Question: Methodology is defined by the free dictionary as a body of practices, procedures, and rules used by those who work in a discipline or engage in an inquiry; a set of working methods http://www.thefreedictionary.com/methodological Therefore the methodological question surrounds how the inquirer goes about finding out what they believe can be known? Depending on what answers have already been given to the above questions they will constrain the answer to this one, whether the methods are qualitative or quantitave. The methodological question cannot be reduced to a question of methods; methods must be fitted to a predetermined methodology (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 201) How can the inquirer (would be knower) go about finding out whatever he or she believes can be known? The answer that can be given to this question in constrained by answers already given to the first two questions; that is, not just any methodology is appropriate. For example, a real reality pursued by an objective inquirer mandates control of possible confounding factors, whether the methods are qualitative (e.g. observational) or quantitative (e.g. analysis of covariance). The methodological question cannot be reduced to a question of methods; methods must be fitted to a predetermined methodology (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 201). Questions for analysing paradigms Research paradigms Positivism Methodological questions Role of researcher Objective, independent from the subject Investigator often controls the investigated Role of values Science is value-free Values have no place in research must eliminate all bias Methods Empirical Structured and replicable observation Quantification / measurement Experimental directly manipulate variables and observe Type of studies Survey studies Verification of hypotheses Statistical analysis Quantitative descriptive studies What is Positivism: Knowledge is based not on unchallengeable, rock-solid foundations, but rather upon human conjectures (Phillips Burbules, 2000). Positivism is an epistemological perception which states that only knowledge which is based on sensory experience and positive verification is authentic knowledge. More simply worded, positivism is the view that all true knowledge is scientific, and that all things are ultimately measureable. Positivism emerged from the success of the scientific approach in natural sciences such as physics, chemistry, and biology. The impetus for this came from the overwhelming success of science in understanding and solving problems in the natural world. The ontology of positivism is realism; an apprehend able reality that is assumed to exist, driven by immutable natural laws and mechanisms. Knowledge of the ways things are is conventionally summarised in the form of time- and context-free generalizations, some of which take the form of cause-effect laws. Research can, in principle, converge on the true state of affairs. The basic posture of the paradigm is argued to be both reductionist and deterministic (Hesse, 1980, cited in Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 204). The epistemology of positivism is dualist and objectivist; meaning the investigator and the investigated object are assumed to be independent entities, and the investigator to be capable of studying the object without influencing it or being influenced by it. When influence in either direction (threats to validity) is recognised, or even suspected, various strategies are followed to reduce or eliminate it. Inquiry takes place as through a one-way mirror. Values biases are prevented from influencing outcomes, so long as the prescribed procedures are rigorously followed. Replicable findings are, in fact, true (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 204). The methodology of positivism is experimental and manipulative. Questions and/or hypotheses are stated in propositional form and subjected to empirical tests to verify them; possible confounding conditions must be carefully controlled (manipulated) to prevent outcomes from being improperly influenced (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 204). Originally conceptualised by Auguste Comte in the early 19th Century (Pickering, 1993), positivism has been greatly criticised, including by positivist themselves. A number of the concerns raised have influenced the epistemological position taken within this research; particularly that knowledge is a social variable, knowing one is the subject of a study, changes in ones behaviour, and the notion of subjectivity and value orientation. What is Social Construction of Reality/ Post-Positivism: The Social Construction Reality/ Post-positivism paradigm include the following paradigms: interpretive, critical, feminist, and postmodern paradigm. I think interpretive paradigm is the paradigm that most education research is  based on  at the University of Waikato. The social construction of reality assumes that knowledge is subjective and unique therefore researchers undertake systematic and painstaking analysis of social episodes (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007, pp. 19). This is a less reductionist approach to research recognizing the importance of context and aiming to represent how participants view their world. Rather than seeking generalisations this paradigm accepts that reality is multilayered and complex (Cohen et al, 2007, pp. 21) therefore data collected are open to multiple interpretations. This approach is more speculative based on the assumption that theory is emergent therefore the researcher should not be seeking evidence purely to support a predetermined hypothesis. Post-positivism is a meta-theoretical stance that analyses and adjusts positivism in light of the criticisms which positivism, as a scientific paradigm, has received. Post-positivism offers primary amendments to the positivist paradigm. Firstly, that the absolute separation of the knower and the known is not assumed; and secondly, that a single, shared reality which excludes all others is not assumed to be a true basis for reasoning. It is critical to note that post-positivism is not a rejection of the scientific paradigm, but seeks to amend the criticisms associated with positivism (Phillips Burbules, 2000; Zammito, 2004). Post-positivism states that knowledge is based not on unchallengeable, rock-solid foundations, but rather on human conjectures (Phillips Burbules, 2000; Zammito, 2004). Epistemologically speaking post-positivism works on the position that facts and law deduced through research are probably true (Guba Lincoln, 2005) in light of evidence provided (Phillips Burbules, 2000; Zammito, 2004). Post-positivism of this type is common place in social science for conceptual and practical reasons (Phillips Burbules, 2000; Zammito, 2004). What are the differences between the two Meta-Paradigms: Based on the literature, the most fundamental differences between both paradigms are how they search for the truth and define validity and reliability. The positivist paradigm seeks and finds them in a (perceived)  value free and objective evidence based world and the constructivists in a subjective, contextual and interpretive world (Silverman 2005, p. 6; and Cohen et al. 2007, p. 26). Research as creating new knowledge: Positivism and Post-positivism create knowledge by a process of accretion, with each fact (or probable fact) serving as a kind of building block that, when placed into its proper niche, adds to the growing edifice of knowledge. When the facts take the form of generalisation or cause-effect linkages, they may be used most efficiently for prediction and control. Generalisations may then be made, with predicable confidence, to a population of settings (Denzin Lincoln, 1998, pp. 212). What counts as evidence in Educational Research: What counts as evidence in educational research depends on what is being asked. If one is looking at effectiveness of direct impact then there would be a different type of key evidence compared to if the question was in relation to the nature of a problem, or how some intervention worked or how a naturally occurring process takes place. Basically the kinds of evidence that will count will depend on the nature of the proposition. Anyone that is interested in the evidence needs to remember that the evidence is always connected to what was being asked or the proposition. One cannot take for granted that it is true one needs to still ask: how is the connection made possible? And what values, assumptions and conventions are behind that kind of connection? (Andrews, 2007). Maintaining quality in Educational Research: The quality standards related to the post/positivist paradigm are validity and reliability. This is because the focus of this is to discover the truth using empirical investigation. Anderson and Arsenault (1998) write that validity refers to the extent to which what we measure reflects what we expected to measure [which] has two forms: internal and external (pp. 257). Related to the research, the term internal validity refers to how the findings meet the expected results. While, external validity refers to being able to generalise the findings to other situations and contexts. Therefore, an experiment is valid if the results are appropriate to the manipulated independent variable and if they are able to be generalised to individuals or contexts other than the experiments setting (Gay Airasian 2000, pp. 371). Because the focus of this paradigm is to find out the truth, reliability is an important indicator for the consistency of the research findings. Anderson and Arsenault (1998) state that reliability refers to the extent that an instrument will yield the same results each time it is administered (pp. 256) an example of this is, if you were to administer a survey the larger the source of the data you collect the more it will be reliable as the results become more generalised the more it will give the same results the next time you did it. Furthermore, trustworthiness is a foundational criteria to maintaining quality. Trustworthiness can be broken down into four quality standards these being, credibility using multiple methods and perspectives and member checking, transferablility by providing rich data and thick descriptions, dependability by having a detailed audit trail, and comformability can be achieved by giving readers clear track of data and interpretations. (Anderson and Arsenault 1998) Peer Review. Research shows the benefits of Peer review doesnt only improve the language that authors use and they way their ideas are presented, but also alerts them to statistical and scientific errors in their research, inappropriate methodology, or accuracies in referencing which they can then correct before the publication. (Taylor and Francis Author Services, 2010) An example of this is when one submits his/her work to an international journal for anonymous refereeing by unknown peers, they read they article critically and then suggest for it to be accepted, rejected, or most often revised and improved before it is published. Without this external seal of approval many scientists would consider any results as preliminary, potentially flawed (Gannon, 2001). Conclusion Conclusion: Educational research with its characteristics is influenced by four major paradigms. Each paradigm has its own epistemology, ontology, and quality standards which influence the researchers to find the truth and see the reality. The important point is that knowing the nature of each paradigm which can help the researchers to conduct their research process. Researchers can conduct the research within and across paradigms which is called multi-paradigmatic research paradigms (Taylor, 2008). The nature of educational research is analogous with the nature of research itself, which is systematic, reliable and valid to find the truth, investigates knowledge, and solves problems. Moreover, educational research process involves steps to collect the information in order to investigate problems and knowledge. However, the educational research is more complex because it can use various approaches and strategies to solve problems in educational setting. It also can involve many disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, behaviour, and history. In addition, educational research is important because of contributing knowledge development, practical improvement, and policy information. Therefore, educators can use those research findings to improve their competences and teaching and learning process (Yulirahmawati, 2008).

Emma by Jane Austen :: essays research papers

Emma by Jane Austen Setting Emma took place in small town called Highbury in 18th century England. During the time period set in the novel, there was a definite social rank, or hierarchy. Almost all of the scenes in the book take place in or around the estates of the characters. Their property mostly determined their social status. This setting has significance to the storyline, because of the social rank. Emma, who is constantly trying to play matchmaker, tries to convince her friend Harriet to marry someone of a higher class than her current love, a farmer. The characters are very aware of their status, and can be discriminating towards people of a lower class, such as the farmer. The book was most likely set in this place and time in order to include the conflicts of a hierarchal society. Character Analysis Emma Woodhouse: Emma is the main character of the novel. She is a beautiful, smart, and wealthy 21-year-old woman. Because of her admired qualities, Emma is a little conceited. She is the daughter of Henry Woodhouse. Since her mother has died, Emma has taken the role of taking care of her father, who is old and often sick. Because she feels she is obligated to stay by his side, Emma decides not to marry. Emma believes that she is a good matchmaker, and tries to put together several couples throughout the novel. Emma believes that social classes are very important and refuses to see anyone cross over to marry someone lesser than themselves In chapter 8-page 52, Emma is talking about Harriet’s situation with the farmer with Mr. Knightley. She says, â€Å"Mr. Martin is a very respectable young man, but I cannot admit him to be Harriet’s equal. As the novel progresses, Emma becomes more mature, and realizes how silly she had been in the past. In the end, she finally stops matchmaking others and marries Mr. Knightley, who was perfect for her all along. Mr. Knightley: Mr. Knightley is another main character of the novel. He is quite a bit older than Emma, at 38. He is also Emma’s brother in law. He often visits the Hartfield estate to play cards. He is a little protective of Emma, and often gives her advice to change her prying ways. Mr. Knightley, although high in status, does not fully believe in the hierarchal customs of Highbury. He thinks that people’s actions and feelings are better judges of themselves than their title or property. Emma by Jane Austen :: essays research papers Emma by Jane Austen Setting Emma took place in small town called Highbury in 18th century England. During the time period set in the novel, there was a definite social rank, or hierarchy. Almost all of the scenes in the book take place in or around the estates of the characters. Their property mostly determined their social status. This setting has significance to the storyline, because of the social rank. Emma, who is constantly trying to play matchmaker, tries to convince her friend Harriet to marry someone of a higher class than her current love, a farmer. The characters are very aware of their status, and can be discriminating towards people of a lower class, such as the farmer. The book was most likely set in this place and time in order to include the conflicts of a hierarchal society. Character Analysis Emma Woodhouse: Emma is the main character of the novel. She is a beautiful, smart, and wealthy 21-year-old woman. Because of her admired qualities, Emma is a little conceited. She is the daughter of Henry Woodhouse. Since her mother has died, Emma has taken the role of taking care of her father, who is old and often sick. Because she feels she is obligated to stay by his side, Emma decides not to marry. Emma believes that she is a good matchmaker, and tries to put together several couples throughout the novel. Emma believes that social classes are very important and refuses to see anyone cross over to marry someone lesser than themselves In chapter 8-page 52, Emma is talking about Harriet’s situation with the farmer with Mr. Knightley. She says, â€Å"Mr. Martin is a very respectable young man, but I cannot admit him to be Harriet’s equal. As the novel progresses, Emma becomes more mature, and realizes how silly she had been in the past. In the end, she finally stops matchmaking others and marries Mr. Knightley, who was perfect for her all along. Mr. Knightley: Mr. Knightley is another main character of the novel. He is quite a bit older than Emma, at 38. He is also Emma’s brother in law. He often visits the Hartfield estate to play cards. He is a little protective of Emma, and often gives her advice to change her prying ways. Mr. Knightley, although high in status, does not fully believe in the hierarchal customs of Highbury. He thinks that people’s actions and feelings are better judges of themselves than their title or property.

Maket Structure-Micromax

MARKET STRUCTURES What is a Market structure? In economics Market structure is the way the market is organized , based largely on the number of firms in the industry, number of buyers and levels of competition , for example Monopoly, oligopoly , Perfect Competition. Monopolistic competition is the market structure is the market structure I am going to base this assignment on. Monopolistic CompetitionMonopolistic Competition is a type of imperfect competition such that producers sell products that are differentiated from one another as goods but not as perfect substitutes, they differ in terms of brand, quality, and location. In monopolistic competition a firm takes the prices charged by its rivals as given and ignores the impact of its own prices of other firms. Monopolistic competition has the following Characteristics:- †¢ There are many producers and consumers in the market and no company has total control over the market price. There are very barriers in the entry & exit of firms. †¢ Producers have a degree of control over prices. †¢ There is product differentiation. †¢ Independent decision making. Examples of Monopolistic competition:- Firms involving the selling toothpastes, soaps, electronics, and automobiles are examples of monopolistic competition. ANALYSIS OF A COMPANY IN MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION Company name: MICROMAX About Micromax Micromax is a consumer Electronics Company found in 1991 and based in Gurgaon, Haryana, India.It focuses primarily on the sale of Mobile phones, LED televisions as well as tablets. It has 23 domestic offices as well as offices in Honk Kong, Dubai, USA and also employs over 1400 employees. Micromax is the 3rd largest handset manufacturer and the 12th largest manufacturer in the world. As of 2012 , Micromax leads the Indian tablet market with a share of 18. 4% which is higher than even the likes of Apple and Samsung, it is also the 3rd largest mobile phone vendor in terms of volume.The company’s r apid market share growth since 2008 is primarily attributed to its aggressive low pricing and entry level segments of its products and its wide distribution setup. ANALYSIS OF A PRODUCT FROM MICROMAX Product name: MIcromax A116 Canvas HD The Micromas A116 Canvas HD was launched at the start of January 2013 and is the latest Smartphone to be launched by MIcromax and is also their best phone yet and aims to rival even the best Smartphones of international companies like Samsung, and Micromax has sought to do this with aggressive low pricing.Below are the specifications of the Micromax A116 HD |Screen and Resolution |5† HD(1280X720 pixels) | |Camera |8MP with LED flash & front facing camera | |RAM |1 GB | |Operating system |Android 4. Jelly bean | |Memory storage |4 GB, expandable to 32 GB | |Processor |1. 2 GHz quad core ARM cortex | |Battery |2,100 mAh Battery(approx 21 hours) |Overview The Micromax A116 Canvas HD has a plastic built and has a very powerful chipset and proc essor, and has no physical keys as it is a full touch screen. The Smartphone also comes with the latest operating system from Android which is Jellybean, the battery is a 2,100 mAh battery which will last for an approximate 21 hours. Price The Micromax A116 HD is priced at 15,000 Rupees. COMPETITION AND THEIR PRICESThe following tables are some competition from International Companies for Micromax:- Samsung |Samsung Galaxy Grand |21,500 | |Samsung Galaxy S3 |35,000 | |Samsung Galaxy S3 mini |24,000 |HTC |HTC One X |34000 | |HTC One S |22999 | |HTC One V |18000 |LG |LG Optimus G |35,000 | |LG Optimus L9 |19,899 | Nokia Nokia Lumia 620 |15,000 | |Nokia Lumia 920 |35,490 | |Nokia Lumia 900 |31,500 | The following are some competition from Domestic Companies for Micromax:- Karbonn Karbonn S1 Titanium |11,500 | ELASTICITY OF THE PRODUCT Price elasticity of Demand If the price of the product is increased by a particular amount, then the demand of the product will decrease by a fu rther amount, as the consumer has a host of other alternatives to choose from and will choose the item which will give him the most satisfaction at a lower cost, therefore the demand for these phones are highly elastic.Elasticity Of Supply If the Market price of the product decreases by a particular amount then the firm will supply fewer products than the amount in which the price has increased , as the firm does not want to sell their products at a lower price and will wait till the price increases to again increase their supply, therefore Micromax has an elastic supply. ———————– MONOPOLISTIC COMPETITION MARKET STRUCTURE RHYS CAMARA ROLL NUMBER -1 MARKET STRUCTURE

American Medicine and the Nursing Then and Now - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1636 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/10/10 Did you like this example? American medicine and nursing can be defined as the process of the diagnosis, treatment as well as the perceptions of the disease. This process is mainly done in the hospitals where many lives of the people are saved. In this essay, I will discuss the American medicine and nursing in the year 1850.   I will also consider the American medicine as well as the nursing in 2000. I will explain the important four biggest changes and gives the reason why such changes occurred. Finally, I will discuss the essential way of medicine and nursing. American medicine and nursing in 1850 During the 1850s, America medicine as well the nursing was only a family affair. Females were supposed to take care of illnesses while still in the household. The households were very thoughtful, life intimidating illnesses were doctor’s subpoenaed it. It was the domestic medicine was used. Domestic medicine was the United States medical practice that involved the combination of the house remedial as well as and a limited methodically trained procedures conducted out through the professional physicians. Those people had the type of authorizations need to have, traveled lengthily as they exercised medicine. There was an exercise of midwife so as to attend the females during the time of the birth and giving birth was a very common profession for the females because most of the child bearing took place at homes and not in hospitals (Dunn 850). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "American Medicine and the Nursing Then and Now" essay for you Create order In addition, the ancient medicine was founded on the traditional Greek belief for the four senses of humor which was of the rich blood, mucus, black bile as well as the yellow bile. The Balance between the humors was the main tool towards the health. The disease was thought to have been caused by more or little fluids. The curative control of hot, unkind, dry, and then wet preparations, then a many of plants. In addition to herbs, were also extremely regarded in 1850, at this time the required individuals who were on the bone settlers then the doctors who carried the operations had no formal training. Medical doctors with medical degrees as well as scientific training started displaying up on the United States countryside in the late foreign era. Medical schools were frequently unlocked by surgeons who were required toward recovering United States medicine as well as increase the medical occupation thus making sure the high rank in the America. With technical training, physicians bec ame more commanding as well as practiced medicine as minor businesspersons, indicting a payment for their amenities (Susan 850). At the mid of   year,   America doctors who had   only the medical exercise started   stressing on the clue that germs, as well as the social conditions,   might cause as well as well as spread diseases , particularly in town. Numerous cities came up with the dispensaries where very many medicines towards the poor and then provided free doctor service. The spread of cholera, diphtheria, tuberculosis, as well as yellow fever, lead about hygiene and the sanitation where the city administration constructed very many departments. During this year, the new advancements for studying the bacteria started to be used as the germ theory also became accepted as the main cause for the diseases.   This time was the phase of the spread of the diseases as well as poor sanitation.   The public health which was being sponsored by the government as well as the health care that the private healthcare started to expand systematically. As the United States became progressively urbanized in 1880, the hospitals were constructed by the city administration so as to treat the poor began treating them. Physicians, who had high power or the authority, stopped wayfaring to their vilest patients as well started treating them beneath the roof. United States clients who could pay were cured were in smaller, frequently private rooms. On the progression or changes that were made in 1850 included first positive ovarian cystectomy, morphine isolations, curare investigated, cerium disc, cautery that was used for the liver abscesses as well as the splenic disease and steam sterilization was done during this time (Henderson 62). American medicine and nursing in 2000 In 2000 is when the global genome plan produced a waft of the humanoid genome toward the people. The biosphere would be able to read the complete set of the human hereditary information as well started mapping the genome. There was also Physicians and Patients Harness data Technology.   When the clients came to the hospital they did not have to think of signing in a pad with a pen, then sit in the waiting area whereas the doctor wrenches patient’s folder. However, physicians used the skill had altered the exercise medicine of good lives. In the same year, the heart attack Disease as well as even the death decreased in two thousand. It decreased by forty percent. Those who were searching for the improvements in the public needed to look and not further compare to the realm of the world of the heart disease. There earlier days, the clients used to go to the hospice with the soul failure, and the best would be performed and they were also to place a client in a area which was dark, then give them morphine for the pain as well as lidocaine which doctors bad trust would prevent the serious irregular heartbeats as well as had to hope for the best. People could die to lead because of such diseases. In 2000 curing the heart attack which all was about the speed hence saving the lives of the people. The targeted therapies for cancer started expanding leading to the new drugs. Hartford Foundation Organization for Senior Nursing released rules so as to make sure the baccalaureate nursing graduates had all the knowledge and skills to offer geriatric care important to the aging Americans. The Senior Nursing Care were intended to go hand-in-hand Basics of Baccalaureate Schooling for Qualified Nursing Rehearsal, the complete values that explained the necessary knowledge, standards, as well as core abilities likely to the bachelors degree nursing alumnae. The new rules define thirty scientific competencies essential for nurses to deliver first-class care to elder adults as well as their relatives. There was also poor housing and poor food for the patients in the hospitals. Since there was the advancement of the in the medical science technology as well as the health care delivery the population of the people who were old had more clients with chronic conditions. In that period about thirty-five million Americans were aged and had more chronic conditions while half of this had multiple of those conditions. In addition, the most of the illness burden while the health maintenance resources that were connected to the chronic circumstances, the health care scheme was prepared then oriented mostly thus giving the attention for the acute maintenance as well as inadequate during a meeting the needs for the frequently ill was done by the specialist. There was few clinical program that could give the full complement of all the services which were required by all the individual who had suffered the heart pressure, diabetics, asthma as well as the other popular chronic situations. The studies signified that there was an effective treatment of chronic conditions wants to be continuous all over settings as well as the types of all the providers. The doctors and nurses wanted to be to collaborate with each other as well as the clients had to develop joint care plans which had agreed upon the implementation steps. For the instance, the care would support the client’s self-management as well as encompass the regular doctors. There was an application of the patient centered and the proficient in the informatics applications. Four biggest changed that occurred On the great changes that have occurred in the America in the field of medicine as well as include the use of the electronic health records. This is used to ensure that there are big advances in the centralization as well as of the patient data. It may also be used as a data as well as the population health tool. There is also use of the mobile health. The m-health are the releasing heat devices of the wires as well as the harmonies enabling the doctors and also the patient’s alike to confirm the healthcare processes on the go. It ensures that the patients, as well as the patients, are to become active performers in their treatment by linking the message with the biometrics. One can take the blood pressure base wireless (Monteiro 81). Another change is the use of the telemedicine. The cost benefits of the telemedicine may be ignored either, for instance, patients may be able to obtain a full valuation over the film talk with a doctor. Dues were mechanically made, however, the dues are a summary to issue out old-fashioned house cost. Setting the definite healthcare price aside. There is the use of the portal technology. Clients are progressively becoming very active –players in their individual health care, as well as the pivotal skill, is one tool helping them to perform that. The portal technology authorities the patients to contact medical records as well as interact online. This ensures the insalubrious individuals bare closely involved and better educated about their health care. Conclusion Finally, the way the essential ways of medicine and nursing are it first provides the background for rehearsal from sciences then civilizations. Secondly, it is important because it has organizational as well as the scheme leaderships. It is important for the quality development as well as the safety. Other important ways include the health policy and then the advocacy. I have realized that the American medicine and nursing was accompanied by the great change which is discussed there above in 1850 and 2000 due to an advancement of technology, technology, and the innovations. Examples of such changes involved the use of the M- health.